Editorial Board

A Refereed Monthly International Journal of Management

A Systematic Review to Study the Antecedents of Gender Disparity at Managerial Levels: It’s Impact on Sustainable Organizational Growth

Srishti Bathla

Research Scholar,

Manav Rachna University, Faridabad

sbsrishti@gmail.com

Dr. Pragati Chauhan

 Professor,

Manav Rachna University, Faridabad

Pragati1977@gmail.com

Abstract

Although the number of working women has increased in India in the last few decades the percentage of female representation at the top/managerial level is still quite low. The objective of gender equality, which further contributes to sustainable development, is violated by discrimination against women in management positions. A systematic analysis of around 65 research papers reveals what factors or antecedents of genderdisparity exist at managerial levels in the corporate sector. Such factors can be social, personal, organizational, cultural etc. Because of these different barriers that affect the women wanting to work, they are not pushed to reach the top. It is also analyzed that this scenario doesn’t exist only in the Indian context but such factors play a vital role even abroad. Using TCCM (Theory-Context-Characteristics-Methods) review framework, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of the dominant theories, contexts (i.e. industries and countries), characteristics (key variables and their relationships), and methods (research methodology and analysis tools &techniques) employed in gender disparity that affects sustainable organizational growth.

Keywords: Gender Disparity, Inequality, Factors, Barriers, Managerial Levels, Sustainable Organizational Growth

Introduction

Patriarchy in India has a long history, and its roots are deep. Historically, women have been the victims of oppression and domination since the evolution of humans and have faced many problems and challenges that their counterparts would never face just because of the gender they are born in. It's been a concern for quite some time, both globally and in India, with regards to the status of women in corporations.

There are various ways to talk about the concept of gender disparity, which is so prevalent all over the world. At a workplace, it can be in the form of lack of equal opportunities, promotions, judgements by their bosses and peers, gender bias and lack of support. It is easy to see at home, in the form of personal life pressure, work life balance, raising children on their own, lack of family support, societal pressures and guilt.

In climbing up the ladder of success, women have as big an ambition as men. With the same passion, they're also joining the workforce. However, a completely different picture emerges from the statistics on boardrooms and top management. This shows that there is some leakage in the pipeline caused by several factors.

“Women are underrepresented in top management positions. Gender discrimination is still present in the labor market in general, and specifically in the upper levels of organizations” (When Women Thrive 2020 Global Report). “Only 13 women (2.6%) were CEOs of Fortune Global 500 companies in 2020. The percentage of women decreases as the levels of management progress, as follows: approximately 37% were managers, 29% were senior managers, and 23% were executives.” (Yagüe-Perales, 2021).“Inequality between women and men is due to social prejudices, mostly because of gender barriers present in organizations. Gender barriers pose a serious threat to equal opportunities for women and their social rights” (United Nations Human Rights: Office of the High Commissioner, 2021). The factors that lead to gender disparity at the workplace are multiple. It may organizational, social or personal. For instance, Gender stereotypes and biases have been widely recognized as critical drivers of workplace gender disparity. A study emphasizes the role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders, highlighting how preconceived notions about gender roles can impact the evaluation and perception of women in leadership positions (Eagly and Karau, 2002).

The phenomenon of occupational segregation has long been identified as a major contributor to gender inequality at the workplacediscusses the mechanisms that perpetuate occupational segregation, emphasizing how societal norms and expectations influence the concentration of men and women in specific industries and roles. (Reskin, 1993)

The struggle to balance work and personal life is a significant factor affecting gender disparity. (Shockley et al., 2017) conducted a meta-analysis, demonstrating how work-family conflict disproportionately affects women due to traditional gender roles and caregiving responsibilities.

(Correll, Benard, and Paik, 2007) investigate the "motherhood penalty," wherein women experience setbacks in their careers after becoming mothers. This penalty is attributed to biases, limited opportunities, and perceptions of reduced commitment, leading to negative consequences for women's advancement.

The concept of the glass ceiling and the related glass cliff phenomenon has garnered attention in explaining gender disparity in leadership positions. (Ryan and Haslam, 2005) shed light on the glass cliff, highlighting how women are often appointed to leadership roles during times of crisis, putting them in precarious situations that can hinder their success.

“The persistence of gender pay gaps continues to contribute to gender inequality in the workplace” .(Blau and Kahn, 2017) present an extensive analysis of the gender wage gap, examining its extent, trends, and explanations, including factors like negotiation differences and occupational segregation.

Unconscious biases play a pivotal role in recruitment and promotion decisions. (Moss-Racusin et al., 2012) highlight how science faculty's subtle gender biases favor male students, exemplifying how ingrained biases can affect women's opportunities and advancement.

Efforts to address gender disparity include implicit bias training and diversity initiatives. (Devine et al., 2012) present a prejudice habit-breaking intervention as a means to reduce implicit race bias, highlighting the potential of such programs in challenging ingrained biases.

The absence of flexible work policies can disproportionately affect women, who often bear the brunt of caregiving responsibilities. (Kelly and Kalev, 2006) discuss managing flexible work arrangements, highlighting the need for formalized discretion to ensure equitable access to such policies.

Gender disparity in the workplace has been recognized as a pervasive issue with far-reaching consequences for both individuals and organizations. Gender disparity often leads to reduced diversity in organizational leadership and decision-making teams. Lack of diverse perspectives can limit creativity and innovation, hindering an organization's ability to adapt and thrive in a rapidly changing business landscape. (Dass and Parker, 1999) underscores the connection between diversity and innovation, emphasizing the role of gender parity in fostering a creative and dynamic work environment.

Organizations that fail to address gender disparity risk losing valuable talent, especially among their female workforce. The "leaky pipeline" phenomenon, where women drop out of the workforce due to limited advancement opportunities, has been well-documented. (Hewlett et al., 2008) discuss the concept of "off-ramps" and "on-ramps," highlighting the importance of retaining talented women through flexible policies and advancement pathways.

Persistent gender disparity can lead to negative perceptions of an organization's commitment to diversity and equality. Such perceptions can impact the company's reputation, making it less attractive to potential employees, customers, and investors. (Catalyst, 2007) presents research on how organizational reputation can be affected by gender diversity initiatives, stressing the importance of aligning values with actions.

By excluding qualified women from leadership roles, organizations miss out on a significant portion of the talent pool. (Erhardt et al., 2003) demonstrates the positive relationship between gender diversity at the top management level and financial performance. Organizations that overlook qualified female leaders may fail to tap into their skills, expertise, and potential contributions to sustainable growth.

Gender disparity poses legal and regulatory risks for organizations. Lawsuits related to gender discrimination and unequal pay can result in financial penalties and reputational damage. (McGuire and Palisi, 2006) examine the legal implications of gender disparity and discuss the importance of compliance with anti-discrimination laws in fostering sustainable organizational growth.

Gender disparity can have long-term implications for an organization's performance and stability. A lack of gender diversity in leadership roles may hinder strategic decision-making and impede adaptability to changing market dynamics. Research by illustrates the link between gender diversity and financial performance, suggesting that gender-balanced companies tend to outperform their peers. (McKinsey & Company, 2015)

Gender disparity can inhibit organizational agility, as diverse perspectives are crucial for effectively navigating complex challenges. Organizations that lack gender diversity may struggle to adapt to changes in the business environment. Based on the concept of agility, explores the impact of diversity on an organization's ability to respond to market shifts and technological advancements (Kotter, 2014).

In conclusion, gender disparity has profound implications for sustainable organizational growth. It affects diversity, innovation, talent retention, reputation, access to talent, culture, legal compliance, performance, stakeholder relationships, and organizational agility. By recognizing and addressing these impacts, organizations can position themselves for long-term success and contribute to a more inclusive and equitable business landscape.

It has been proved that an organization that incorporate the concept of gender diversity in its culture not only gives a fair chance to the male counterparts but also brings a new perspective to the table. This helps in overall growth of the organization in the long run. This concept of sustainable growth is supported by several researchers. The aim of this paper is also to analyse different factors of gender disparity and why the removal of such barriers would lead to sustainable organisational growth. We would also try establish relationship between presence of gender disparity and employee performance within the organization. Our contribution shows the relation between gender gaps in access to senior management positions, and perceptions of organizational workers by men and women as well as their impact on organisational outcomes. It is therefore apparent that social sustainability requires equitable access to management positions for women, but it is also an important factor to achieve sustainable results. First, we review previous evidence about barriers to gender disparity at workplace and further study its relationshipwith women employee performance and sustainable growth pattern of the organization.

Literature Review

(Oakley G, 2000) examined so many reasons contributing to low women representation at top level management.

This  includes lack of line experience, inadequate career opportunities, gender differences in linguistic styles and socialization, gender-based stereo- types, the old boy network at the top, and tokenism.

It majorly discussed two barriers:

1. Corporate Practices like lack of training in areas like operations, manufacturing, marketing etc, women employed more in supporting roles like HR & PR, lack of women supportive promotional policies, gender pay gaps.
2. Behavioural and Cultural (double binds, gender & their communication styles- women are less assertive, less self-promoting and do not blow their own horn, unlike men. Gender based stereotypes- relating self-confidence, aggressive, independent, unemotional, active, logical traits with MEN and relating emotions, less self-confident, less analytical, less consistent traits with WOMEN). attractive males and unattractive females are preferred and found more capable and vice-versa. assuming that men are best suited for leadership roles, women are less attracted to power. women at top report that men feel uncomfortable with their presence. women at top treated as threat to old boy network. Tokenism at top also drive away best female talent.

(Shaw & Hoeber, 2003)examined how the focus on masculinity and femininity in three English National Governing Boards of Sports has been shaped and enhanced, with implications for employment roles. Males were associated with powerful coach and senior management roles, whereas femininity was related to less important RDO or teaching role. Acceptance of such discourse of masculinity and femininity has led to distinct association between employment roles. To a certain extent, females in these three organisations were able to connect with work roles which are influenced by stereotypes about men; therefore they demonstrated their abilities for senior management positions. Despite the increasing numbers of women in sport's leadership positions over the past 30 years, they remain dominated by men and this is symptomatic of a gender imbalance within sports management.

(BARRIOS, 2014)this study also examined different factors such as sexual and psychological harassment, promotion issues, family matters, discrimination on grounds of gender, work prejudice, safety or security concerns etc. demographical aspects like age, education level, married status, occupation, years of experience, nature of organisation etc.

(Nandy et al., 2014) Some of the barriers discussed in this study were psychological obstacles, societally related restrictions and organizational constraints. Barriers to advancement, gender stereotypes and other threats from within or outside an organisation persist for women in organisations. Their roles are stereotyped in organizations, and they're not part of informal groups networks or take part in the decision making process. Because of this, women lose enthusiasm and many a times after leaving the job, never come back.  Managerial roles expect person to possess masculine traits but when women show it, they are not accepted as they are not exhibiting feminine traits.

(Do Women at Top Make a Difference? Gender Proportions and the Experiences of Managerial and Professional Women., 2015) As a function of gender, this exploratory study examined the satisfaction and work experience of female managers and professional women. Managerial and professional women working in skewed or titled organizations, mostly men at all levels and senior management, were less satisfied with their work and reported more intention to leave than women working in organizations with fewer men at all levels of management. The study gives a scope for further study of the reasons behind these findings which may be exclusions of women from the old boy’s network in male dominated organizations, potential insensitivity of senior men towards omen, absence of female mentors and role models etc. Many factors were examined in this study like - Gender Proportions, Individual Demographic Characteristics, Organizational & Situational Characteristics, Work Outcomes (Job Involvement, Intent to quit, Job satisfaction, career success, future career progress).

(Stamarski et al., 2015)The factors considered to be gender discrimination in decision making and the implementation of human resources practices, as well as disparities between men and women across organisational structures, processes and procedures. It covers leadership, structures, strategy, culture, organisational environment and human resources policies, the level of sexism among corporate decision makers.

(Moazzam, 2017)Stereotypes have a negative impact on individual perception on women in management selection criteria was positively correlated with the education. In fact, cultural and societal norms such as that mentioned by only a few female respondents in the course of seeking higher management positions often lead to gender bias. They were asked to explain why women had not been able to reach the highest managerial positions due to social pressures; all replied that this was a result of societal pressure. Some women blamed the women themselves for being a part of such social set up that doesn’t support females in the society.

(Jayachandran, 2020)Gender norms, which impede full and equal participation of women in the labour market across Developing Countries, are a cause for concern. The barriers included cultural barriers like- Harassment and violence towards women in public places, restrictions placed on women's social interactions and freedom of movement, control over household finances, intimate partner violence and who should be the breadwinner, who bears responsibility for household chores and childcare, solutions to overturn the norms.

(Ramos et al., 2022)Different types of obstacles to women being promoted to leadership positions, as well as the perception of organisational justice, are directly linked. Barriers to entry into influential and dominant networks, as well as barriers linked to a balance between work and life. There's also a direct link with various types of barriers to women becoming managers. Challenges relating to accessing networks, as well as obstacles associated with work and life balance.

The role of sustainable human resource management is to be played by two key characteristics: the development of staff and a mix of flexible working times and new types of workspace are particularly relevant in terms of their impact on outcomes such as satisfaction with employment, or job performance. he attention needs to be on a mix of employee development-flexible and time-flexible places, leading to an increase in both employee job satisfaction and organizational performance.

Research Methodology

The research paper undertakes a systematic review study using TCCM (Theory, Context, Characteristics Method) technique involving study of the various barriers that cause gender disparity at managerial level. The aim is to do a thorough analysis of the kinds barriers that affect the gender disparity and which further leads to low women representation at managerial level at workplace. A total of 30 papers shortlisted for the review were screened and examined to find out some commonalities in the end. Research Methodology includes thematic analysis of these 30 research papers to conclude that the inter-play of which factors acts as barriers in women’s growth to the top

FILTERATION PROCESS

TCCM APPROACH

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Discussion & Conclusion

Gender disparity in organizations is a complex phenomenon that has its traces in the form of organizational policies, hiring and recruitments practices, training, pay, and promotion of women. Apart from organizational factors, there are social factors as well that comes into picture. Societal and family pressures, multiple roles of women, child care, work-life balance are some of the issues that women keep juggling between. Interestingly these factors are present not just in India but abroad as well. Stereotyping of gender roles, positions and traits is yet other barriers women face while going up the corporate ladder. Male managers carry more stereotypes about women employees, than do female managers. However, femalesat managerial positions also carry similar kind of stereotypes. Men are not comfortable with female colleagues and bosses. They resist normalization of female seniors and often do not allow women to enter the boy’s club or network. This is also one of the reason women face resistance in acceptance. It has been observed that women must work harder than men to get equal pay or promotion. The performance appraisal techniques and parameters are different for men and women despite working hard. This is something that really discourages women to work for their growth. Women are discriminated against at workplace as well as at family level. However, at times their self-perceived norms also stop them from reaching the top.

It is imperative that HR policies and guidelines recognize these barriers and start working on more gender supportive policies. We make the case that gender disparities in wider organisational structure, processes and practices which include human resources policy as well as leadership, structures, strategy, culture, organizational climate lead to discrimination against women when deciding on or implementing an HR practice. One way of helping women in the workforce is to adopt policies and programmes that are intended to comply with these norms. It's important to realize that rather than equality, you should aim for equity.

Making a shift in the cultural norms will not be an easy task, however this can be slowly worked upon if men volunteer to cooperate. Equal distribution of work chores among other family members, support from family, availability of crèche facility at workplace, flexible working hours for women, giving women a fair chance when are they are ready to be back after a sabbatical are some of the ways in which these barriers can be reduced and gender parity can be achieved at workplace. This is the only way to sustainable development in the future.

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